INTRODUCTION For two decades, various countries have experienced an epidemic of chronic kidney disease unexplainable by traditional causes. Typically a chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, it predominantly affects young male agricultural workers and has been reported in several countries in Central America, as well as in Sri Lanka, India and Egypt. Recent studies in El Salvador have also reported the disease in male nonagricultural workers and in women, both those working in agriculture and not. Epidemiological information on whether this condition affects pediatric populations is virtually nonexistent. Globally, estimates of chronic kidney disease prevalence in pediatric populations range from 21 to 108 per million population.

OBJECTIVE Determine the prevalence of urinary markers of renal damage and of chronic kidney disease in persons aged <18 years in rural Salvadoran communities.

METHODS Pediatric NefroSalva was a descriptive epidemiologic study in three agricultural regions with known high prevalence of chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology: Bajo Lempa, Guayapa Abajo and Las Brisas. Demographic and health data were collected and physical measurements were taken for 2115 persons aged <18 years, 1058 boys and 1057 girls. Urine samples were tested for markers of renal damage and blood samples analyzed to measure creatinine for estimating glomerular filtration rate (Schwartz formula). Median glomerular filtration rate was compared with reference values for age groups 2–12 and 13–17 years; mean glomerular filtration rate trends were assessed for age groups 2–5, 6–12 and 13–17 years. Positive test results were confirmed after three months.

RESULTS Prevalence of urinary markers of renal damage was 4%, 4.3% in girls and 3.8% in boys. Microalbuminura (albumin:creatinine ratio 30–300 mg/g) was detected in both sexes and all age groups in all three regions, with prevalences of 2.6%–3.8% in boys and 3.3%–3.8% in girls. Macroalbuminuria (albumin:creatinine ratio >300 mg/g) was detected only in girls in Las Brisas, 2.3%. Glomerular hyperfiltration (compared to international norms) was found in all age–sex groups in all three regions. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 3.9%—4.1% in girls and 3.6% in boys. The prevalence of chronic renal failure was 0.1%.

CONCLUSIONS High prevalence of chronic kidney disease in children and adolescents calls attention to the need for primary prevention from very early ages. This finding in children in areas where chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology is common in adults is consistent with a contribution of environmental toxins to the epidemic observed in these areas.

KEYWORDS Chronic kidney disease, chronic renal failure, chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy, interstitial nephritis, glomerular hyperfiltration, child health, adolescent health, environmental health, El Salvador

The following error has been corrected in all online versions of this article.
Page 19, Table 4. The first two rows of data were misaligned by column. The corrected table is:

INTRODUCCIÓN La enfermedad renal crónica es un serio problema de salud en El Salvador. Desde la década de 1990, allí ha habido un incremento de casos no asociados con factores de riesgo tradicionales. Es la segunda causa de muerte en hombres en edad > 18 años. En el 2009, fue la primera causa de muerte hospitalaria para los hombres y la quinta para las mujeres. La enfermedad no ha sidocompletamente estudiada.

OBJETIVO Caracterizar las manifestaciones clínicas (incluidas las extrarrenales) y la fisiopatología de la enfermedad renal crónica de causas no tradicionales en las comunidades agrícolas salvadoreñas.

MÉTODOS Se desarrolló un estudio clínico descriptivo en 46 participantes (36 hombres, 16 mujeres), identificados a través de un pesquisaje poblacional de enfermedad renal crónica en 5 018 personas. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: edad 18–59 años, enfermedad renal crónica en estadios 2, 3a y 3b, o en estadios 3a y 3b con diabetes o hipertensión y sin proteinuria; examen de fondo de ojo normal; ausencia de anormalidades estructurales en el ultrasonido y VIH-negativo. Los exámenes incluyeron determinantes sociales, evaluación psicológica, examen clínico por aparatos y sistemas, parámetros hematológicos y bioquímicos en sangre y orina, análisis del sedimento urinario, marcadores de daño renal, función glomerular y tubular, y las funciones de hígado, páncreas y pulmones. Se realizaron ultrasonido renal, prostático y ginecológico, Doppler ecocardiográfico y vascular periférico, y ultrasonido Doppler renal.

RESULTADOS La distribución de pacientes por estadios de enfermedad renal crónica: 2 (32.6%), 3a (23.9%), 3b (43.5%). La pobreza fue el principal determinante social observado. Prevalencia de factores de riesgo: exposición a agroquímicos (95.7%), trabajo agrícola (78.3%), sexo masculino (78.3%), sudoración profusa durante el trabajo (78.3%), malaria (43.5%), uso de AINES (41.3%), hipertensión (36.9%), diabetes (4.3%). Síntomas generales: artralgia (54.3%), astenia (52.2%), calambres (45.7%), desmayo (30.4%). Síntomas renales: nicturia (65.2%), disuria (39.1%), orina espumosa (63%). Marcadores de daño renal: macroalbuminuria (80.4%), β2 microglobulina (78.2%), NGAL (26.1%). Función renal: hipermagnesuria (100%), hiperfosfaturia (50%), hipernatriuria (45.7%), hiperpotasuria (23.9%), hipercalciuria (17.4%), poliuria electrolítica (43.5%), alcalosis metabólica (45.7%), hiponatremia (47.8%), hipocalcemia (39.1%), hipopotasemia (30.4%), hipomagnesemia (19.6%). Imágenes: el ultrasonido mostró hígado graso (93.5%) y el Doppler vascular mostró daño de las arterias tibiales (66.7%). Síntomas neurológicos: reflejos osteotendinosos anormales (45.6%), signo de Babinski y mioclonus (6.5%), hipoacusia neurosensorial (56.5%).

CONCLUSIONES Esta enfermedad renal crónica se comporta clínicamente como una nefropatía tubulointersticial crónica, pero con manifestaciones sistémicas no atribuibles a la enfermedad renal. Aunque los hombres agricultores predominaron, las mujeres y los adolescentes también estuvieron afectados. Los hallazgos apoyan una hipótesis de etiología multifactorial en la que juega un papel esencial la nefrotoxicidad por agentes del medioambiente.

PALABRAS CLAVE Enfermedad renal crónica, enfermedad ocupacional, nefropatía túbulointersticial, nefrotoxicidad, isquemia renal, determinantes sociales, El Salvador

INTRODUCCIÓN La enfermedad renal crónica (ERC) es una pandemia que afecta a la mayoría de los países en el mundo. Su prevalencia es del 10%, y se asocia principalmente a la diabetes mellitus y la hipertensión arterial. En El Salvador, constituye la primera causa de muerte hospitalaria entre los hombres.

OBJETIVO Determinar la prevalencia de la enfermedad renal crónica y los factores de riesgo en dos comunidades agrícolas salvadoreñas.

MÉTODOS Se realizó un estudio transversal desde marzo hasta septiembre de 2012 en dos comunidades agrícolas salvadoreñas: Dimas Rodríguez (municipio El Paisnal) y El Jícaro (municipio San Agustín). Se aplicaron tanto el método clínico como el epidemiológico. Se efectuó una búsqueda activa de ERC y de sus factores de riesgo en la población mayor de 15 años de edad. Se realizaron visitas casa por casa, para llenar las historias de salud familiar y personal y obtener datos sobre determinantes sociales y factores de riesgo. Se realizó examen físico y pruebas de laboratorio (análisis de orina y hemoquímica) para medir función renal y detectar marcadores de daño renal.

RESULTADOS Se estudiaron 223 personas de ambos sexos. La prevalencia general de ERC fue 50.2%. La prevalencia de insuficiencia renal crónica fue 16.1% con ligeras variaciones entre sexos. En “El Jícaro”, 77.3% de los participantes reportaron contacto con agroquímicos y 76.6% eran agricultores. Las respectivas cifras para la comunidad “Dimas Rodríguez” fueron 75.8% y 73.7%. Otro de los factores de riesgo que se reportó con mayor frecuencia fue el uso de AINES con 61.7% en la comunidad El Jícaro y 77.9% en la comunidad Dimas Rodríguez.

CONCLUSIONES La prevalencia de la ERC es alarmante en estas comunidades tanto en jóvenes como en viejos, y en hombres como en mujeres, independientemente de la ocupación. Los servicios de salud deben enfrentar el incremento de la carga que supone la ERC y tienen el reto de implementar estrategias preventivas.

PALABRAS CLAVE Enfermedad renal crónica, insuficiencia renal crónica, pesticidas, El Salvador.

INTRODUCCIÓN En El Salvador, la enfermedad renal crónica es un serio y creciente problema de salud pública. La insuficiencia renal crónica fue la primera causa de muerte hospitalaria en los hombres y la quinta en las mujeres en 2011.

OBJETIVO Determinar la prevalencia de los factores de riesgo de la ERC (tradicionales y no tradicionales) y los marcadores de daño renal en la población adulta de áreas rurales específicas en El Salvador; medir la función renal y su distribución en la población e identificar los factores de riesgo asociados en los pacientes detectados con ERC.

MÉTODOS Se realizó un estudio epidemiológico transversal y analítico basado en la pesquisa activa de enfermedad renal crónica y factores de riesgo en personas de edades >18 años durante 2009- 2011. Se recogieron los datos epidemiológicos y clínicos a través de la historia clínica personal, así como los análisis de orina para los marcadores de daño renal y vascular, las determinaciones de creatinina sérica y glucosa, y la estimación de la tasa de filtración glomerular. Se confirmaron los casos de enfermedad renal crónica a los tres meses. Se utilizó la regresión logística múltiple para el análisis estadístico.

RESULTADOS La prevalencia de enfermedad renal crónica fue 18% (23.9% para los hombres y 13.9% para las mujeres) en 2 388 personas: 976 hombres y 1 412 mujeres de 1 306 familias estudiadas. Predominó la enfermedad renal crónica sin diabetes, ni hipertensión arterial, ni proteinuria >1 g/L (51.9%). La prevalencia de insuficiencia renal crónica fue 11% (17.1% en los hombres y 6.8% en las mujeres). La prevalencia de marcadores de daño renal fue 12.5% (mayor en los hombres): microalbuminuria, 6.9%; proteinuria (0.3 g/L), 1.7%; proteinuria (1g/L), 0.6%; proteinuria (2 g/L), 0.4%; y hematuria, 1.5%. La prevalencia de factores de riesgo de la enfermedad renal crónica fue: diabetes mellitus 9%; hipertensión, 20.9%; la historia familiar de enfermedad renal crónica, 16.5%; la historia familiar de diabetes mellitus, 18.5%; la historia familiar de hipertensión, 30.6%; la obesidad, 21%; la obesidad central, 24.9%; el consumo de AINEs, 84.2%; la proporción de fumadores, 9.9%; el consumo de alcohol, 15%; la ocupación en la agricultura, 31.2%; y el contacto con agroquímicos, 46.7%. La enfermedad renal crónica se asoció significativamente con el sexo masculino, las edades más avanzadas, la hipertensión, la ocupación en la agricultura, la historia familiar de enfermedad renal crónica y el contacto con el agroquímico metil paratión.

CONCLUSIONES Los resultados de este estudio apoyan las sugerencias propuestas por otras investigaciones con respecto a que enfrentamos una nueva forma de enfermedad renal que podría denominarse nefropatía agrícola.

PALABRAS CLAVE Insuficiencia renal crónica, enfermedad renal crónica no diabética, nefrotoxicidad, nefropatía tubulointersticial crónica, El Salvador.

INTRODUCTION Chronic kidney disease is a global pandemic, affecting the majority of countries in the world. Its prevalence is approximately 10% and it is associated mainly with diabetes and high blood pressure. In El Salvador, it is the leading cause of hospital deaths among men.

OBJECTIVE Determine prevalence of chronic kidney disease and its risk factors in two Salvadoran farming communities.

METHODS From March through September 2012, a descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in two Salvadoran farming communities: Dimas Rodríguez (El Paisnal municipality) and El Jícaro (San Agustín municipality). The research involved both epidemiological and clinical methods. An active search for chronic kidney disease and its risk factors was carried out in the population aged >15 years. House-to-house visits were carried out to take family and individual health histories and gather data on social conditions and risk factors. A physical examination was performed, along with laboratory tests (urinalysis and blood chemistry) to measure renal function and detect markers for renal damage.

RESULTS A total of 223 persons of both sexes were studied. Overall prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 50.2%. Prevalence of chronic renal failure was 16.1%, with slight variations between the sexes. In El Jícaro, 77.3% of participants reported contact with agrochemicals and 76.6% were farmworkers; the respective figures for Dimas Rodríguez were 75.8% and 73.7%. The next most frequently reported risk factor was NSAID use, at 61.7% in El Jícaro and 77.9% in Dimas Rodríguez.

CONCLUSIONS CKD prevalence is alarming in these communities, among both young and old, men and women, independently of occupation. Health services must cope with the increased CKD burden observed, and are challenged to implement preventive strategies.

KEYWORDS Chronic kidney disease, chronic renal failure, pesticides, El Salvador

INTRODUCTION Chronic kidney disease is a serious health problem in El Salvador. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in cases unassociated with traditional risk factors. It is the second leading cause of death in men aged >18 years. In 2009, it was the first cause of in-hospital death for men and the fifth for women. The disease has not been thoroughly studied.

OBJECTIVE Characterize clinical manifestations (including extrarenal) and pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease of nontraditional causes in Salvadoran farming communities.

METHODS A descriptive clinical study was carried out in 46 participants (36 men, 10 women), identified through chronic kidney disease population screening of 5018 persons. Inclusion criteria were age 18–59 years; chronic kidney disease at stages 2, 3a and 3b, or at 3a and 3b with diabetes or hypertension and without proteinuria; normal fundoscopic exam; no structural abnormalities on renal ultrasound; and HIV-negative. Examinations included social determinants; psychological assessment; clinical exam of organs and systems; hematological and biochemical parameters in blood and urine; urine sediment analysis; markers of renal damage; glomerular and tubular function; and liver, pancreas and lung functions. Renal, prostate and gynecological ultrasound; and Doppler echocardiography and peripheral vascular and renal Doppler ultrasound were performed.

RESULTS Patient distribution by chronic kidney disease stages: 2 (32.6%), 3a (23.9%), 3b (43.5%). Poverty was the leading social determinant observed. Risk factor prevalence: agrochemical exposure (95.7%), agricultural work (78.3%), male sex (78.3%), profuse sweating during work (76.3%), malaria (43.5%), NSAID use (41.3%), hypertension (36.9%), diabetes (4.3%). General symptoms: arthralgia (54.3%), asthenia (52.2%), cramps (45.7%), fainting (30.4). Renal symptoms: nycturia (65.2%), dysuria (39.1%), foamy urine (63%). Markers of renal damage: macroalbuminuria (80.4%), ß2 microglobulin (78.2%), NGAL (26.1%). Renal function: hypermagnesuria (100%), hyperphosphaturia (50%), hypernatriuria (45.7%), hyperkaluria (23.9%), hypercalciuria (17.4%), electrolyte polyuria (43.5%), metabolic alkalosis (45.7%), hyponatremia (47.8%), hypocalcemia (39.1%), hypokalemia (30.4%), hypomagnesemia (19.6%). Imaging: Ultrasound showed fatty liver (93.5%) and vascular Doppler showed tibial artery damage (66.7%). Neurological symptoms: abnormal tendon reflexes (45.6%), Babinski sign and myoclonus (6.5%), sensorineural hearing loss (56.5%).

CONCLUSIONS This chronic kidney disease studied behaves clinically like chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy, but with systemic manifestations not attributable to kidney disease. While male agricultural workers predominated, women and adolescents were also affected. Findings support a hypothesis of multifactorial etiology with a key role played by nephrotoxic environmental agents.

KEYWORDS Chronic kidney disease, occupational disease, chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy, nephrotoxicity, renal ischemia, social determinants, El Salvador

INTRODUCTION In El Salvador, chronic kidney disease is a serious and growing public health problem. Chronic renal failure was the first cause of hospital deaths in men and the fifth in women in 2011.

OBJECTIVE Determine prevalence of CKD, CKD risk factors (traditional and nontraditional) and renal damage markers in the adult population of specific rural areas in El Salvador; measure population distribution of renal function; and identify associated risk factors in CKD patients detected.

METHODS A cross-sectional analytical epidemiological study was conducted based on active screening for chronic kidney disease and risk factors in persons aged =18 years during 2009–2011. Epidemiological and clinical data were gathered through personal history, as well as urinalysis for renal and vascular damage markers, determinations of serum creatinine and glucose, and estimation of glomerular filtration rates. Chronic kidney disease cases were confirmed at three months. Multiple logistical regression was used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS Prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 18% (23.9% for men and 13.9% for women) in 2388 persons: 976 men and 1412 women from 1306 families studied. Chronic kidney disease with neither diabetes nor hypertension nor proteinuria =1 g/L (51.9%) predominated. Prevalence of chronic renal failure was 11% (17.1% in men and 6.8% in women). Prevalence of renal damage markers was 12.5% (higher in men): microalbuminuria, 6.9%; proteinuria (0.3 g/L), 1.7%; proteinuria (1g/L), 0.6%; proteinuria (2 g/L), 0.4 %; and hematuria, 1.5%. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease risk factors was: diabetes mellitus, 9%; hypertension, 20.9%; family history of chronic kidney disease, 16.5%; family history of diabetes mellitus, 18.5%; family history of hypertension, 30.6%; obesity, 21%; central obesity, 24.9%; NSAID use, 84.2%; smoking, 9.9%; alcohol use, 15%; agricultural occupation, 31.2%; and contact with agrochemicals, 46.7%. Chronic kidney disease was significantly associated with male sex, older age, hypertension, agricultural occupation, family history of chronic kidney disease and contact with the agrochemical methyl parathion.

CONCLUSIONS The results of this study support suggestions from other research that we are facing a new form of kidney disease that could be called agricultural nephropathy.

KEYWORDS Chronic renal failure, nondiabetic chronic kidney disease, nephrotoxicity, chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy, El Salvador

Errata:

The following errata have been corrected in all online versions of this article.

Page 25, Table 1, units of measurement for albuminuria are mg albumin per g creatinine.

Page 26, fi rst complete paragraph, the last line should read, “Most CKD patients (51.9%) had no DM, HT or proteinuria.”